Module 25

            Module 25 is titled “Using Visuals.”  The module advises that using charts and graphs help make numbers meaningful and thus help communicate your points in oral presentations, memos, letters, reports, and meetings.  It is recommended that visuals be used in both the rough draft and final presentation or document.  Use visuals to make your points more vivid.  Readers skim memos and reports, but a visual catches their eye.  Visuals help to emphasize information that might be skipped if it is buried in a paragraph.  They also present information more compactly and with less repetition than words alone.  It also will focus the information that decision makers need.  The number of visuals that you need to use will depend on your purpose, the kind of information being presented, and your audience.  When using a chart, check to make sure the data is reliable.  The chart is only as good as the data it contains.  Every visual should tell a story.  Focus on the topic and simplify the data.  The relationships and changes should be described in a sentence, and the sentence can also serve as the title of the visual.  Visuals are not interchangeable so choose the visual that best matches the purpose of presenting the data.  Use tables when the reader needs to be able to identify exact values.  To compare a part to a whole, use a pie chart.  In order to compare one item to another or items over time, use a bar chart or a line graph.  Be careful when using colors in your visuals.  Your readers might try to interpret the colors, or different meanings might be assigned to the colors based on your audience’s national background and profession.  Connotations for colors vary from culture to culture.  In memos and reports, resist the temptation to make your visual “artistic”.  Always double check your visuals to be sure that the information is accurate.  For presentations, simplify your paper visuals.  To simplify a complex table, divide it into several visuals.  You can even cut out some of the information, round off the data, or present the information in a chart.  Visuals used for presentations should have a title.

            One section in Module 25 is “What design conventions should I follow?”  This section advises that every visual should have six components.  A visual should have a title that tells a story that the visual shows.  It should also have a clear indication of what the data are.  The visual should contain clearly labeled units.  It should also contain labels or legends, identifying axes, colors, and symbols.  Everything the visual contains should be easily identified.  The source of the data should also be included, along with the source of the visual.  Use tables only when you want the audience to focus on specific numbers.  Pie charts force the audience to measure area.  Bar charts are easy for your audience to interpret, because they ask people to compare distance along a common scale.  Grouped bar graphs allow you to compare several aspects of each item or several items over time.  Segmented, subdivided, or stacked bars sum the components of an item.  Deviation bar charts identify positive and negative values or winners and losers.  Paired bar charts show the correlation between two items.  Histograms and pictograms use images to create the bars.  Line graphs are also easy to interpret.  Use line graphs to compare items over time, to show frequency or distribution, and to show correlations.

Module 20

            Module 20 is titled “Making Oral Presentations.”  This module tells us that making a good oral presentation involves more than just a good delivery. It requires the development of a strategy that fits your audience and purpose.  Oral presentations must inform, persuade, and build goodwill, which are the same requirements for written documents.  There are three ways described in the module to deliver your oral presentation.  In a monologue presentation the speaker speaks without interruption, and questions by the audience are held at the end.  The text recommends a guided discussion.  In a guided discussion the speaker presents the questions or issues that both the speaker and audience have agreed on in advance.  The speaker functions as a facilitator to help the audience tap its own knowledge.  The third type of oral presentation is a sales presentation.  The sales representative uses questions to determine the buyer’s needs, probe objections, and gain temporary and then final commitment to the purchase.  In all oral presentations the speaker needs to be able to make his ideas relevant to his audience by linking what he says to their experiences and interests.  The use of well designed visuals can give your presentation a professional image, and serve as an outline for your talk.  The module recommends making only one point with each visual and giving each visual a title that makes a point.  There are five standard patterns in presenting an oral presentation.  The chronological starts with the past, moves to the present, and ends by looking ahead.  The problem cause solution pattern explains the symptoms of the problem, identifies its causes, and suggests a solution.  This pattern works best when the audience will find your solution easy to accept.  The excluding alternatives pattern explains the symptoms of the problem.  The speaker then explains the obvious solution first and shows why they will not solve the problem.  He ends by discussing a solution that will work.  This pattern may be necessary when the audience will find your solution hard to accept.  The pro-con pattern gives all the reasons in favor of something first, then those against it.  This pattern works well when you want the audience to see the weaknesses in its position.  The final pattern is 1-2-3, which discusses three aspects of a topic.  This pattern works well when giving a short informative briefing. 

            One of the sections in Module 20 is “What are the keys to delivering an effective presentation?”  Audience members want to feel as though the speaker is talking directly to them, and that you care that they understand and are interested.  Feeling nervous is normal, but you can channel that nervousness to help you deliver your best.  The module advises that in order to do this, that you must be prepared.  The speaker must analyze his audience, check on all the arrangements, practice your opener and close, and organize your thoughts.  It also recommends that you contract and then relax all of your muscles, and then take several deep breaths from your diaphragm.  Pause and look at the audience before you begin speaking, and concentrate on communicating well.  Use your body energy in strong gestures and movement.  Look directly at the people you are talking to.  The point in making eye contact is to establish one-on-one contact with the individual members of your audience.  Stand with your feet far enough apart to maintain good balance.  The module recommends using notes unless you are making a very short presentation.  Most speakers like using 4 by 6 or 5 by 7 inch cards because they hold more information.  Look at your notes infrequently.  If you have lots of visuals and know your topic well, you may not need note cards.  Keep the room lights on if possible because turning them off makes it easier for people to fall asleep.

Module 3

            Module 3 is titled “Communicating Across Cultures.”  The module advises that in any organization, you will work with people whose backgrounds differ from yours.  Each of us grows up in a culture that provides patterns of acceptable behavior and belief.  We may not be aware of some of the most basic things in our own culture until we come in contact with people who do things differently.  The text describes two types of cultures.  One is high-text culture, where most of the information is inferred from the context of the message as little of the information is spelled out.  The Japanese, Arabic, and Latin America are high context cultures.  The other is low-context culture, where context is less important as most of the information is explicitly spelled out.  German, Scandinavian, and the United States are low-context cultures.  Most cultures are more formal than the United States.  When you write to international audiences, use titles, not first names.  Avoid contractions, slang, and sports metaphors.  The patterns of organization that work for North American audiences, may need to be modified for international correspondence.  The text recommends being sensitive and flexible when communicating with many different cultures.  Start by using nonsexist, nonracist, and nonagist language.  Use bias free language. 

            One section of Module 3 is “How can I make my documents bias-free?”  Make your language nonsexist, in this way it treats both sexes neutrally.  Use neutral titles which do not imply that a job is held by a man or a woman.  When you write about a specific person, use the appropriate gender pronouns.  Language is nonracist and nonagist when it treats all races and ages fairly, avoiding negative stereotypes of any group.  Only give someone’s race if it is relevant to your story.  Avoid the use of any terms that suggest that competent people are unusual.  When talking about people with disabilities and diseases, focus on the person and not their condition.  Do not use negative terms, unless the audience prefers them.  When using visual effects, choose bias-free photos and illustrations.  The module stated that Microsoft’s U.S. Web site showed two men, one Asian and one black.  But on the Web site of a European affiliate, the black man’s head was replaced with that of a white man, but his hands were left unchanged.  After criticism for altering the man’s race, the company apologized.

Module 24

            Module 24 is titled “Long Reports.”  Formal reports differ from informal letters and memo reports by their length and by their various components.  A formal report is not required to, but may contain all of the following components:  cover, title page, letter of transmittal, table of contents, list of illustrations, executive summary, and report body.  The title page contains four items:  the title of the report, whom the report is prepared for, whom it is prepared by, and the release date.  The writer should use a memo of transmittal if you are a regular employee of the organization for which you prepare the report, and use a letter if you are not.  The transmittal transmits the report and orients the reader to the report, and builds a good image of the report and the writer.  The table of contents list the headings exactly as they appear in the body of the report.  The list of illustrations includes both tables and figures.  Tables include words or numbers, and figures are everything else (bar graphs, pie charts, maps, drawings, photographs, computer printouts, etc.).  An executive summary tells the reader what the document is about.  The writer must know the report’s recommendation and support in order to write the executive summary.  The report body includes an introduction, background or history, and conclusions and recommendations.  The introduction of the report contains a statement of purpose and scope.  It also may contain limitations, assumptions, and methods.  The background and history are not only important for your current audience but also audiences in the future that may review this report.  Conclusions summarize points made in the body of the report, and recommendations are action items that would solve or partially solve the problem.

            One section detailed in Module 24 is “I’ve never written anything so long.  How should I organize my time?  This section recommends that you write parts as soon as you can, and spend most of your time on sections that support your recommendations.  To use your time efficiently, the writer should think about the parts of the report before he begins writing.  Most of the introduction will come from your proposal with only minor revisions.  The bibliography from your proposal can form your first draft of your references or works cited.  This section recommends that the writer save a copy of his questionnaire or interview questions to use as an appendix.  When you tally and analyze the data, prepare an appendix summarizing all the responses to your questionnaire, your figures and tables, and a complete list of references or work cited.  You can write the title page and the letter of transmittal as soon as you understand what your recommendation will be.  Write the important sections first in order to take care of the main substance of your report.

Module 23

            Module 23 is titled “Short Reports.”  Whenever you have a choice between writing a short report or a long report, the module recommends that you write a short report.  Do not put information in the report because you have it available or because you researched it but have not used it in the report.  Only choose the information the reader needs to make a decision.  There were three different kinds of reports described in the module.  Informative and closure reports summarizes completed work or research that does not result in action or a recommendation.  This type of report has an introductory paragraph, chronological account, and a concluding paragraph. Feasibility reports evaluate several alternatives and recommends one of them.  Justification reports recommend or justify a purchase, investment, hiring, or change in policy.  The writer needs to indicate what you are asking for and why it is needed.  Also briefly give the background of the problem or need, and explain each of the possible solutions.  Summarize the action needed to implement your recommendation, and ask for the action you want.  The module advises that informative, feasibility, and justification reports will be more successful when you work with the readers’ expectations for that kind of report.  If the reader will be reluctant to grant your request, the module offered a variation of the format used in Module 12.  It recommends describing the organizational problem which your request will solve and show why easier or less expensive solutions will not solve the problem.  Present your solution impersonally, and show that the disadvantages of your solution are outweighed by the advantages.  Summarize the action needed to implement your recommendation and then ask for the action that you want.

            One section detailed in Module 23 is “Should I use the same style for reports as for other business documents?”  The module recommends using a formal style in your report, and avoid using any contractions or slang.  Avoid the word you, because when multiple audiences review your report, it might not be clear who you is.  Also due to the multiple audiences, include in your report all the definitions and documents needed to understand the recommendations.  Say what you mean, choose the right words carefully.  By using the wrong word or words that are not accurate and concise will damage your report.  People that read your report may know very little about your subject.  Put the meaning of your sentence in the verbs and this will help you to say what you mean.  You also want to tighten your writing by eliminating unnecessary words, using gerunds and infinitives, and combining sentences.  Reword your sentences to reduce the number of words.  The module also recommends the using of blueprints, transitions, topic sentences, and headings.  Blueprints are overviews or forecasts that tell the reader what you will discuss in a section or in the entire report.  You can make your blueprint easier to understand by telling the reader how many points there are and by numbering them.  Transitions tell the reader if you are staying on point or shifting to a new point.  A topic sentence summarizes the main idea of a paragraph.  Headings are short words or phrases that identify the different sections of the report.  Topic headings focus on the structure and set up of the report.           

Modules 27 and 28

            Module 27 is titled “Resumes.”  A resume is a persuasive summary of you qualifications for employment.  Usually resumes are screened in two ways.  The employer will separate the documents into two piles: “reject” and “maybe”.  The module describes that in the first round review of your resume it may get as little attention as a few seconds.  The employer will then go through the “maybe” pile again weeding out more documents.  Some companies can get up to 2,000 resumes a week, which means the average resume may only get reviewed the second time around for only 10 to 30 seconds.  The remaining documents will then be reviewed more carefully to choose the people who are invited for interview.  Your resume may also be electronically scanned into a job-applicant tracking system.  That means that the first set of cuts is done by the computer.  The employer specifies the key words from the job description, listing the knowledge, skills, and abilities that the ideal applicant would have.  Sometimes the employer also includes personal characteristics (hard worker, good writer, willing to travel).  The employer receives the resumes that match the key words.  You need to have a paper resume and a scannable resume.  You want to show more than just a list of what you have done.  Showed how it helped the organization, increased sales, saved the company money, or supervised five people.  Emphasize achievements that are most relevant to the position for which you are applying, and show your superiority to other applicants.  Use jargon and buzzwords for the industry and organization.  Include skills that are helpful in almost every job.  Consider using a career objective with the employer’s name.  You may have to have several resumes to adapt to different employers.

            One of the sections in Module 27 is “What kind of resume should I use?”  The first point that is made is to choose the kind of resume that makes you look best.  The two basic kinds of resumes are chronological and skills.  A chronological resume summarizes what you did in a timeline, by starting with the most recent events and going backward in reverse chronology.  It emphasizes degrees, job titles, and dates.  It is the traditional resume format.  The module recommends using a chronological resume when your education and experience show.  A skills resume emphasizes the skills you have used, rather than the job or the date you used them.  Use a skills resume when your education and experience are not the usual route to the position for which you are applying, or when you are changing fields.  You want to combine experience from paid jobs, activities, or volunteer work.  Your recent work history may create the wrong impression.  Both kinds of resumes omit I and use sentence fragments punctuated as complete sentences.  Complete sentences are acceptable if they are brief.  Me and my are acceptable if they are unavoidable.  Both kinds of resumes can use bullet points, and both use details.  

            Module 28 is titled “Job Application Letters.”  The purpose of a job application letter is to get an interview.  The module advises that in the letter the writer must focus on the major requirements of the job you are applying for.  It must also focus on points that separate you from other applicants, and shows your knowledge of the organization.  Emphasize points that employer’s value such as your ability to write and speak effectively, solve problems, and the ability to get along with people.  In order to make your application letter professional, the module recommends creating your letter on a computer and use a standard font (Times Roman, Palatino, Arial, or Helvetica) in 11 or 12 point type.  You should address your letter to a specific person.  If it is a woman, then call the office and find out how she prefers being addressed.  Do not mention relative’s names, but it is alright to mention other names that the reader knows.  Omit personal information that is not related to the job.  Unless applying for a creative job use a conservative style in your letter.  Avoid contractions, sentence fragments, clichés, or slang.  Edit the letter very carefully and proof it several times to make sure it is perfect.  The module described two types of letters.  You are encouraged to write a solicited letter when you know that the company is hiring.  You may have seen an ad, been advised by a professor or friend, or read about a position in a trade magazine.  Sometimes though the advertised position is not the one you are interested in.  Then you can write a prospecting letter.  The text used the example of prospecting for gold.  Prospecting letters may allow you to tap into a hidden job market.  Companies have been known to create positions to get a good person who is on the market.  Even in a hiring freeze, a position is sometimes created for specific individuals.

Module 22

            Module 22 is titled “Finding, Analyzing, and Documenting Information.”  One section of Module 22 is “How do I write questions for surveys and interviews?”  A survey questions a large group of people called respondents or subjects.  The module advises that the easiest way to ask a lot of questions in a survey is by having a written questionnaire that the respondents fill out.  An interview is a structured conversation with someone that can provide you with useful information.  The surveys and questions can be useful only if the questions are well designed.  You want to phrase questions that will not bias the response, and avoid questions that make assumptions about your subjects.  Use words that mean the same thing to you and your respondents.  The module describes two different types of questions.  One is closed questions that have a limited number of possible responses, and the other is open questions that do not lock the subject into a particular response.  Closed questions are easier for subjects to answer and faster for researchers to score.  Whenever you ask a multiple choice question, make sure that only one answer fits the question.  Otherwise the data will be unreliable.  Another type of question that is also used in surveys is called a branching question, which directs respondents to different parts of a questionnaire based on their answers to earlier questions.

            Module 22 describes two kinds of research.  One is primary research which gathers new information, and the other is secondary research which retrieves information that someone else has gathered.  The module also provided some helpful hints on finding information online.  It defined keywords as the terms that a computer searches for in a database or on the Web.  To locate Web pages, use root words to find variations, and use quotation marks for exact terms.  Do not capitalize your words as it will limit your search to sites where the word itself is capitalized.  Web pages can be posted by anyone and information does not have to be truthful or accurate.  The module advised that academic journals would be more reliable for providing information, because they are reviewed by an editorial board.  Try to use reputable sources, such as ones produced by universities and established companies and organizations.  Look for an author and make sure someone is taking ownership of the information provided.  Check the date of the material and the sources utilized.  Compare the information to other sources.  The two most widely used formats for endnotes and bibliographies in reports are the Modern Language Association (MLA) and the American Psychological Association (APA).  The module provided examples of the different formats.  In a good report sources are cited and documented smoothly and accurately.  A citation means attributing an idea or fact to its source in the body of the report.  Documentation means providing the bibliographic information that readers would need to go back to the original source.